Photogrammetry – From Birth to Modern Times

Photogrammetry is a field of science and technology concerned with reconstructing the shapes, dimensions, and positions of objects based on their photographs. Simply put, photogrammetry enables us to measure and map the real world by analyzing photographs. This article presents the historical development of this discipline, its technological evolution (including the emergence of LiDAR systems and drones), examples of photogrammetric software, as well as interesting facts and various applications of photogrammetry – from the most popular to more niche ones.

Origins of Photogrammetry – 19th Century

Photogrammetry was born in the mid-19th century, shortly after the invention of photography. The pioneer is considered to be the French officer Aimé Laussedat, who between 1849–1859 experimented with using photographs to create topographic maps. Laussedat was the first to develop methods for determining dimensions and shapes of terrain features from photographs, for which he is often called the “father of photogrammetry.”

Early photogrammetry used cameras on tripods for terrestrial photogrammetry. The first aerial photogrammetric photograph was taken in 1858 by Gaspard Félix Tournachon, who photographed the area around Paris from a tethered balloon. These images proved that aerial photography could be used for terrain mapping. Soon, architects also recognized the potential of the new method – in the same year, German Albrecht Meydenbauer used photographs for the inventory of the Wetzlar Cathedral, which is considered the first use of photogrammetry for heritage documentation.

By the end of the 19th century, photogrammetry had its first institutions and textbooks. In 1885, the Royal Institute of Photogrammetry was established in Prussia under Meydenbauer’s leadership – by 1920, it had collected 20,000 photographs of monuments and architectural structures. In 1889, Carl Koppe published the first textbook on photogrammetry. Photogrammetric methods began to be widely used for mapping – Canadian Édouard Deville was a pioneer in this, using ground-based photos in 1893 to map the Canada-Alaska border. In 1896, he also constructed the stereoplanigraph – a device for simultaneously analyzing two overlapping photos (stereo), which gave rise to stereoscopic photogrammetry and analog instruments known as autographs.

From Cameras and Balloons to Airplanes

The early decades of the 20th century saw rapid development in photogrammetry, linked to advances in photography and aviation. Stereoscopes and stereocomparators were introduced, allowing precise measurements based on stereoscopic photo pairs. In 1908, Eduard von Orel built the first stereoautograph, which semi-automatically drew contour maps from a 3D terrain model viewed in a stereoscope. This was the era of analog photogrammetry – measurements were made optically and mechanically, and the results were drawn by hand or using mechanical autographs.

At the same time, aerial photogrammetry was developing. The first aerial photographs from an airplane were taken in 1908 – Wilbur Wright photographed the area around Le Mans, France. During World War I, aerial photography proved useful: by 1914, reconnaissance planes were taking thousands of photos daily to help produce updated front-line maps. In 1917, Eastman Kodak built the K-1 aerial camera for the U.S. Army, using film rolls to take serial shots from airplanes.

After the war, many countries began to regularly use airplanes for mapping photography – for example, in Italy, Umberto Nistri created a photomap of Rome in 1919 at a 1:10,000 scale. Such aerial surveys became the foundation of modern topographic mapping.

Between the wars, photogrammetry also developed in Poland – in 1924, Professor Kasper Weigel began work on a photogrammetric map of the Tatra Mountains using stereoscopic aerial image analysis. Already at that time, it was possible to map mountains from the air at a 1:20,000 scale – a huge achievement for that era. In 1930, the Polish Photogrammetric Society was founded, and national photogrammetric services were developed for the military and public administration.

Three Eras of Photogrammetry: Analog, Analytical, and Digital

After World War II, photogrammetry entered the analytical phase. This meant incorporating mathematical calculations into the process – first using calculators and tables, and soon the first computers. A key figure was Uuno Helava, who in 1957 patented a computer-controlled stereoscopic analyzer. In 1961, Helava built the first practical analytical autograph – a device where an operator observed a 3D model in a stereoscope while a computer calculated coordinates and automatically drew the map. The analytical photogrammetry era (1960s–70s) enabled the automation of many laborious computations – measurements became faster and more accurate, although they still required a human operator at optical instruments.

Digital Photogrammetry

At the turn of the 1980s and 90s, a major revolution occurred – digital photogrammetry. With the development of personal computers, the entire photogrammetric photo-processing workflow was transferred to the digital realm. From around 1990, images began to be scanned or taken directly with digital cameras, and specialized software replaced the old optical instruments. For example, the 1990s saw the arrival of fully digital photogrammetric workstations capable of automatically aligning photos and generating 3D terrain models. Classic autographs were no longer needed – they were replaced by computers with appropriate software. By 1991, digital photogrammetry was sufficiently developed that this year is often cited as the symbolic beginning of the current era.

Photogrammetric software became a topic in itself. The first packages appeared with the spread of computers – initially on workstations in research or military institutions. Over time, many commercial programs were created, including for aerial photogrammetry (e.g., Leica Photogrammetry Suite, Socet Set) and close-range use. Today, there are many software packages for photogrammetry – both professional (e.g., Pix4D, Agisoft Metashape, Bentley ContextCapture) and free/open-source ones like OpenDroneMap. Thanks to these, photogrammetry has become more accessible – nowadays, anyone with a camera (even a smartphone) and the right software can try creating a 3D model of an object or terrain.

Emergence of LiDAR Technology

In the context of spatial measurements, the term LiDAR often arises. While LiDAR is not photography but an active laser scanning technique, it is often integrated with or compared to photogrammetry. LiDAR technology emerged decades after photogrammetry – after the laser was invented in 1960. Already in 1961, the first LiDAR prototype was built, and in 1962, the first commercial laser distance-measuring system appeared. Initially, LiDAR was mainly used for atmospheric research – in the 1960s, laser beams were aimed at clouds and the Moon (NASA conducted such experiments). A breakthrough came when LiDAR was used on the Apollo 15 mission in 1971 – the laser altimeter was used to map the Moon’s surface.

In subsequent decades, LiDAR gradually developed. A major challenge was the lack of precise positioning systems – only the spread of GPS in the 1980s enabled broad use of airborne laser scanners. From the 1980s, airborne LiDAR systems began to be built for terrain mapping. In the 1990s, LiDAR became a commercial tool – scanners could emit thousands of pulses per second, enabling accurate terrain and object measurements. In 1998, the first tripod-mounted 3D scanner for architectural applications was released, along with point cloud software.

Today, LiDAR is often used in tandem with photogrammetry. LiDAR’s advantages include the ability to penetrate vegetation (laser pulses “see” through gaps in foliage) and to obtain terrain geometry regardless of lighting. Photogrammetry, on the other hand, provides rich texture information (colors, surface details). The two methods are often combined in heritage documentation – the laser scanner provides precise geometry, and photogrammetry overlays photographic textures. It’s worth noting that LiDAR technology has also entered the world of drones – in recent years, lightweight scanners for UAVs have become available.

Photogrammetry from Drones and Satellites

Photogrammetry from manned aircraft was the standard for most of the 20th century – regular aerial surveys were conducted and cartographically processed. However, from the turn of the century, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), commonly known as drones, entered the scene. Initially, drones were the domain of the military, later – during the Cold War – they were used for reconnaissance. In civil applications, drones started to play a role after 2006.

The first photogrammetric use of drones dates back to the 1990s – for example, in 1995 the Israeli aerospace industry developed a drone with a camera for civil tasks. The real breakthrough came in the second decade of the 21st century. In 2009, DJI launched the first commercial drone with a high-resolution camera, opening the way for wider audiences. Around 2013, drone photogrammetry became widely accessible – easy-to-use UAV platforms with autopilots and GPS emerged, capable of autonomously performing programmed photo missions. A drone with a good camera can, within minutes, fly over a small area and take hundreds of overlapping photographs, from which software generates orthophotos and 3D models.

Drones have not entirely replaced airplanes – each tool has its place. Drones’ advantages are low cost and the ability to fly at low altitudes and in hard-to-reach locations. Small drones can photograph building facades, excavation interiors, or areas inaccessible to large aircraft or satellites. Limitations of drones include limited range and payload – a small quadcopter cannot cover as wide an area as an airplane, nor carry a heavy camera with the quality of large aerial setups. Thus, for nationwide orthophoto maps, airplanes and satellites are still used, while drones dominate smaller projects that require high detail.

It’s worth noting that before drones became widespread, various unusual methods of aerial photography were attempted. As early as the 19th century, people experimented with kite photography – for instance, in 1889 Arthur Batut took photos using a kite-mounted camera, estimating altitude with a barometer and known string length. A spectacular example is a photo of San Francisco after the 1906 earthquake, taken by George Lawrence using a kite system lifting a 49-pound camera. Below is a panoramic view of the devastated city captured using this method (the camera was suspended ~300 meters above ground):

Another inventive solution was pigeon photography. During the American Civil War, attempts were made to send pigeons with miniature cameras. However, real development came in the early 20th century: in 1907, German pharmacist Julius Neubronner constructed a small time-triggered camera mounted on the chest of a homing pigeon. The photo pigeons proved so effective that Neubronner received a patent in 1908 and showcased the results at exhibitions in Dresden and Paris (1909–1911), gaining wide attention. Although quickly abandoned due to the rise of military aviation, this remains one of the most original episodes in the history of photogrammetry.

A photo pigeon with a miniature chest-mounted camera. The pigeons took aerial photos thanks to a timed shutter mechanism. While it may seem quirky today, over a hundred years ago this was a real method for obtaining aerial imagery.

With the advancement of technology, aerial photogrammetry has partially given way to satellite imagery. As early as the 1960s, spy satellites were taking pictures of Earth, and since the 1970s, civil satellite imagery has been available. In the 21st century, commercial satellite image resolution reaches tens of centimeters, meaning that in many cases, aerial maps are being replaced with satellite orthophotos.

Most Common Applications of Photogrammetry

Surveying and Cartography: creation of topographic maps, orthophotos, and large-area measurements. Photogrammetry allows for quick acquisition of current terrain data – e.g., after natural disasters (floods, earthquakes), aerial surveys are conducted to assess damage. In surveying, photogrammetry is also used to measure large areas where traditional methods would be too time-consuming.
Engineering and Construction: monitoring construction progress (e.g., excavation documentation, roadworks from drones), volume calculations of stockpiles and pits, structural deformation control. With 3D models from photogrammetry, you can calculate waste volumes or monitor slope stability. In open-pit mining, drones with cameras create models of pits and stockpiles, offering a new level of accuracy and safety.
Urban Planning and Architecture: documenting cities, creating 3D models of buildings and neighborhoods for urban planning. Architectural photogrammetry allows inventory of historical buildings without scaffolding – ground or drone images of facades provide full 3D models accurate to a few millimeters. In museums and heritage protection, photogrammetric digitization of monuments has become a standard – 3D models of sculptures, facades, or interiors are archived and shared for research and education.
Archaeology and History: creating orthophotos of archaeological sites, 3D modeling of finds. Photogrammetry allows non-invasive documentation of excavations – drone photo series generate accurate maps of cultural layers, aiding site analysis. Small artifacts (e.g., ceramics, bones) can also be scanned photographically and studied as 3D models. For example, paleontologists use 3D photogrammetry to document dinosaur tracks and bones, analyzing them without risking damage to originals.
Forestry and Geology: aerial photogrammetry supports forest inventories, forest area assessments, landslide and terrain analysis. On aerial photos and digital models, you can assess windstorm damage, canopy density, or estimate biomass. In geology, photogrammetry helps search for resources – aerial images reveal geomorphological features indicating deposits, while 3D terrain models assist in locating them.
Precision Agriculture: although dominated by multispectral remote sensing, drone photogrammetry also plays a role – enabling detailed 3D models of crop fields. Farmers can use these to analyze drainage (elevation models reveal water pooling) or plan irrigation. Drone-generated orthomosaics also help document agricultural damage for insurance claims.
Navigation and Transportation: creating 3D models of cities and terrain for navigation systems, route planning, and accident analysis. Photogrammetric road and intersection models are used in traffic planning and visibility simulations.

Lesser-Known and Modern Applications

Medicine: Surprisingly, photogrammetry is also used in medicine – mainly close-range photogrammetry. Specialized camera systems record the shape of a patient’s body. Applications include spinal measurement (posture analysis via back modeling), plastic surgery planning using 3D facial models, and prosthetics or implants (scanning jaw or dental shapes). This contactless and safe technique provides very accurate surface imaging. In dentistry, digital impressions (photo scans of teeth) are now the basis for designing crowns and orthodontic devices.
Forensics and Crime Scene Analysis: 3D documentation of crime and accident scenes. Police and forensic experts increasingly take photo series at scenes to build photogrammetric 3D models. These allow detailed analysis of events (vehicle positions, road marks) or reconstruction of evidence placement. It’s more accurate than traditional sketches and enables virtual reentry to the scene long after the initial investigation.
Film, Video Games, and Multimedia: Photogrammetry has found a “second life” in the entertainment industry. Game and film creators use it to produce hyper-realistic models of objects and characters. Instead of modeling from scratch, they photograph real props, locations, or even actors, then generate textured 3D models. A notable example is the Polish game The Vanishing of Ethan Carter (2014), where real rocks, plants, and buildings from Lower Silesia were photographed and brought into the digital game world. Photogrammetry enabled an exceptional realism – the game looks “ripped straight from reality,” thanks to this 150-year-old technique used innovatively. In cinema too, photogrammetric scanning of sets or buildings is now standard for visual effects.
Other Fascinating Uses: Photogrammetry is used in diverse fields like meteorology (storm cloud analysis from multi-camera images – called nephometry), sports (e.g., ball trajectory tracking from match footage), and even zoology (studying animal motion by modeling their bodies in motion). In astronomy, photogrammetric techniques helped produce detailed models of planetary surfaces from probe imagery. In 2012, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter captured a series of images later processed into a 3D map of much of Mars’ surface. One could say photogrammetry, which started with balloon photos over Paris, now reaches the stars – mapping other worlds.

Summary

From primitive tripod-mounted cameras and balloons in Laussedat’s time, through Meydenbauer’s glass plates and wooden stereoautographs, to GPS-equipped drones with computer vision algorithms – photogrammetry has come a long way. The history of photogrammetry shows how the invention of photography revolutionized spatial data acquisition. Though it seemed satellites would render the technique obsolete, it experienced a rebirth in new fields (drones, 3D modeling, VR, games). Today, we can measure almost anything with high precision – from mountains and forests to historic cathedrals, human faces, or tiny objects. Photogrammetry remains an incredibly useful tool bridging the analog and digital worlds – turning images into data and models. As aptly said, in photogrammetry, “the idea remained the same, only the tools have changed.” And the development of those tools continues – the coming years will surely bring even more precise measurements and new applications for this fascinating scientific field.

Model by: Atlas 3D – photogrammetry Poland